Reza Vaghefi —
Introduction
Throughout history of the world and in every corner where there is a dictator or someone with full authority and ability to dispense benefits from peoples’ treasury, there are people ready to do the bidding in order to be in grace of the authority whom they milk without the latter knowing. This sort of phenomena took place during the last monarch of Pahlavi dynasty and some 1500 hundred years ago during the Sassanid Empire although in different form.
Bringing down an Empire:
The question of fall of Sassanid empire has been a recurring issue since the first invasion of Arabs more than 1400 years ago. At the time the Sassanid empire was even stronger than Eastern Rome (History and Culture of Iran by M. Mohammadi, 1992, Yazdan, Tehran). At the same time, Iranian armed forces had occupied, or they were at the gate of Constantinople threatening the East Roman territories.
Additionally, Arabs in general, had an in-born fear of the Iranian army and were reluctant to organize and attack Iranian territories. So, the question that has been raised many times is: what had happened that provided the necessary motivations to attack Iran? Given the above, one would wonder about the factors that led to collapse of Sassanid empire.
Anoshirwan was the last powerful king of the Sassanid dynasty and that of Persia. Anoshirvan managed a vast empire through locally deep-rooted men of honor and goodwill who had earned respect of their people in the area they governed. The local rulers were role model of governing people based on the wishes of the people they governed and that is precisely why the empire lasted for so many years. But Anoshirvan, like all human being, could not last forever. His people-based rule lasted 48 years and was most popular at the time of his death.
What happened to Sassanid empire that collapsed although it had lasted for centuries?
Ardeshir Babakan the founder of Sassanid dynasty took over the reign of the government at a time that there were many small kingdoms. Some of the small kingdom submitted to his reign, which was normal at the time, and some rose against him. He suppressed those that revolted and strengthened those that agreed with him, a normal way of running the vast empire. He established this tradition which had made millions of the inhabitants of the empire satisfied. These little kingdoms were emanating from a long tradition amount the families of goodwill who provided a solid foundation for the empire. The successor to Ardeshir Babakan was Anoushirvan famous for spreading justice through the Chief Clergy who had complete authority and could administer justice without delay.
Administrative style of Anoshirvan who had surrounded himself with most competent leaders, and were given authority to administer certain areas and advise him about issues of national significance. His successor, his son, Hormazd, who inherited the position of his father, lacked the most important quality in a leader namely confidence in himself and subsequently acted in ways that helped destroy the empire. There is a big similarity between Reza shah and his son Mohammad Reza Shah.
These men, under Anoshirvan, not only helped administer the vast empire, but they were also cognizant of the fact there were enemies outside the territories who were watching for opportunities to attach Iran. His successor did not have his father’s neither charisma or vision and was deeply suspicious of the men who provided Anoshivan necessary advice. This suspicion led to destroying of the following men whose advice to the leader had helped him over many years. Men like Isadgesheb, Borzmehr, and Mahazar plus Ozarrdehesht who would be considered Chief Archbishop who was poisoned and three others who were destroyed in mysterious ways. According to Professor Mohammadi, in “History of Iranian Culture”, elimination of these four most prominent men provided the ways that led to weakening of Iranian army and ipso facto paved the ways for weakening and ultimately defeat of Iranian army which faced a rag tag massive Arabs who never even dreamed of attacking Iran.
Hormazd’s destroying of trusted commanders plus the most trusted Mobbed, chief clergy, in his regime had serious consequences. The Chief clergy had been put in charge of the most important court, comparable to chief of supreme court, and he was responsible to settle issues that could not have been handled by local courts in different provinces or the vast kingdom. Among the Iranian families there were 7 families that had deep roots and respects among all Iranian and Sassanian family was one most respected by other 6 families.
The Assvaran, or Sepahssalaran, who had been targeted by Hormozd belonged to those 7 families that formed the foundation of Sassanid rules. These top commanders had millions of followers who respected them and the treatment they received from Hormozd did not remain unnoticed. Little by little it eroded the control of the armed forces the foundation of Shahshahi, a term that was used for only for that period.
Fall of Pahlavi Dynasty: Reza Shah Pahlavi
Reza Shah was the founder of Pahlavi dynasty. A man of limited education but great vision faced similar circumstances. Many chieftains and warlords had established their influence in different parts of the country. Nobody had challenged their authority. For instance, Nayeb Hosein who ruled in central part of Iran with his headquarters in Kashan, would collect taxes from the gate of Qum to the gate of Isfahan, a vast area. He had a standing army and would invade different parts in between to collect taxes and jewelry and pirating young women for his armed group.
Emergence of Reza Shah put an end to these groups as well as other established tribes like Bakhtyari and Ghashghai in the central mountainous region of the country. One by one security was established, roads were built, schools and universities opened (Tehran University was opened in 1934 from assembling of separate institutions). World War 11 put an end this modernization drive but ultimately his son Mohammad Reza Shah was installed the successor king which lasted from 1941 to 1978 with occasional turmoil taking place during this period.
Mohammad Reza Shah did some of the same thing that Hormozd had done after Anoshirvan centuries ago though not in the same way and speed but ultimately achieving same results.
In his recent memoir, late Mr. A.H. Ebtehaj, the most competent and inscrutable civil servant who served Iran as Director of National Bank, the most important economic entity, even today, and Administrator of Plan Organization, again the most important instrument of economic planning and implementation, has laid out the critical issues that led to Shah’s downfall. One is bound to suggest that the issues that brought the monarchy to its tragic ends did not appear overnight. A combination of concentration of power, against the Constitution, and opportunistic people around the Shah had created the necessary and sufficient conditions for the Islamic revolution to succeed. Can you imagine taking money from Imam Reza Shrine, a most revered religious shrine, in Northeast of the country, for buildings Casino (gambling house) on Keesh Island, in Persian Gulf?
According to A.H. Ebtehaj (his two -volume Memoirs) corruptions which gradually engulfed all level of government was rampant. In a short period, they would accumulate enough money to buy them a house in California.
Shah’s inner circle was crowded with unscrupulous people whose main objective was to pocket benefits of their position at a rapid pace. This is evidenced by Farah Pahlavi’s memoir where she admittedly states that: “Optimism of some people in our circle influenced us” (Miramax Books,2004, page 261). The Queen who seemed to be in touch with people had no clue about the undercurrents which meticulously were trying to organize and take over the affairs of the state. In addition to such blunt statement, there were more sophisticated sycophants that had Shah’s complete confidence which by itself deteriorated the relationship between the head of state and the people. That is where the renowned author like A.H. Ebtehaj, in his memoir, mentioned that the people around the King were opportunistic and did their bidding by interpreting what was happening in the society, at large, not so serious.
Former Queen Farah is full of praise for late Amir Abbas Hoveida as a man of honor and integrity which is true. But she may have a misunderstanding about the economic and social upheavals that was brought about by gaining strength and gradually undermining whatever had been done precisely because of late Hoveida’s administrative style in serving the Shah. He was the Achilles Heels in Shah’s leadership where Hoveida allowed the Shah to accumulate immense executive powers entirely against the Constitution of l908 where the King was not responsible for many of the functions that members of the government had to execute. Shah was directing the country’s foreign affairs, Commander of the armed forces and the energy There were many other things that without his approval would go nowhere. Even Shah did not realize that by making himself a pillar of the armed forces and society at large they could collapse the moment he leaves the scene. This was evident when in a critical moment the High Council of Armed Forces announced that the army was neutral during the turmoil against the Shah. It would be a mistake to ignore the role that generals like Fardoost, Shah’s protégé and friend, paid in the collapse of the armed forces. It is surprising to suggest that Shah was not aware of the fact that Fardoost had received extensive spying training in England at MI6, the British Military intelligence. Was he there for fun or to learn how to spy for the MI6 or the British government? Isn’t that why he was not executed like so many very competent top officers of the armed forces? Wasn’t this like the actions that came after Anoshirvan when his son Hormozd, weakened the powerful Iranian army and paved the way for neighboring countries to attack Iran?
In other word Shah was supposed to be a Constitutional Monarch with limited power. He was supposed to reign not rule. But over time Hoveida let that most important article of the Constitution fades away. Of course, it did not begin with late Hoveida who was not materially corrupt but did everything to stay in power. To some degree Shah and his inner circle were doing a lot of things that laid the foundations of events to come.
Dr.Ali Amini was appointed prime minister to carry on some major reforms. Of these, Land Reform was very prominent but badly executed without serious consideration to an old established system where the landlord and the farmer knew their role in using the land. According to Dr. Mohammadi’s remarkable historical and unique work, Iranian farmers were deeply attached to land they used to survive. The planers of the land reform created a system named Farmer’s cooperative to fulfil these fundamental duties. This was a total failure because neither the farmers nor the society were prepared to run cooperatives. The concept was totally alien and no one had a clue as to its structure and how that cooperative could replace an established system. The farming was an individualistic act whereas the cooperative concept model required a great deal of understanding among farmers in order to make it work. Millions had died under Stalin’s Soviet system which tried the same cooperatives system in 1931s? Then there was half-baked election where some reforms were put to “peoples” vote.
According to Ebtehaj, people were not part of these reforms. People of suspicious credibility were put in charge of major social changes introduced in the country. For instance, issues like the celebration of 2,500 years of Monarchy in Iran was unnecessary. The author of this paper asked someone who knew the system from inside-out whether this elaborate celebration was necessary. His comment was that for “some people this is an occasion to make lots of money. It must be a big operation for them to make money”
.Or changing the calendar to which people were familiar to Imperial system to show continuity of monarchy system was something that irritated the clergy specially and this is the institution (the clergy) that has ears of majority of people. Add to this list of major mistakes, the significant dissatisfaction among people because of its low quality of players and contents which were completely incompatible with local culture. Among such big mistakes Shah publicly announcing that Iran was approaching “the gate of an advanced civilization” and premier Hoveida saying that Iran will soon be one of the Five major powers in the world. All such superficial statements, to praise the Shah’s regime, had their negative effects and deep disbelief and when you sum up this whole affair, serious social explosion takes place, and it did. In fairness one should not blame Hoveida completely at least for the above-mentioned events. One of the people who had Shah’s complete confidence was late Assaolah Alam, the minister of the Imperial Court. A descendant of an Arab tribe (His memoirs published after his death by A.N. Alikhani), which had been sent to Birjaind, in Northeast corner of Iran, to quell an uprising against Arab rulers at the time, he had no deep affiliation with or love for Iran. All his life he had been pursuing wealth in any way at any price. During the last 10 years of Shah’s rule, the most critical part of his rule, Alam was instrumental in many acts that would have been impossible according to the Constitution if it were to be abide by. But he made money on every possible occasion. According to his memoir, he was the most corrupt man in the Imperial Court.
The essence of the above argument is that Shah had dismissed the national figures that would have been helpful in advising him to do or not to do some of the things going on against the norms and cultural elements that had deep roots in society. Former Queen wonders about host of things that were done but it seemed unappreciated by people. She does not mention that the level poverty remained the same or worsened, a potent force to be exploited by instigators.
It would be appropriate to mention some of the names that their departure from political scene was due to Shah’s attitude and sometimes blunt negative statement which destroyed the will or even existence of such men. The difference between what Hormozd and Shah did was that it took sometimes for Shah to establish his dictatorial rule which included immense influence on the legislature, namely the Senate and Parliament. They would obey his command regardless of the procedures that had been painstakingly established during the Mossadegh era. It seems quite relevant to mention similarities between Hormozd, son of Anoshirvan, and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi son of Reza Shah who had established security, law and order in Iran.
Both of the rulers made similar mistakes and here are the examples.
1. A.H. Ebtehaj
The first man that comes to mind is A.H. Ebtehaj. Monetary stability or order in the market is very critical in the absence of institutions that provide such stability and name of people who are well respected, and in short supply, by traders, large and small, is most critical on a daily business activity in Iran. Ebtehaj was such man an institution all by himself in such a socio-economic system. A man of immense credibility and national as well as international stature. According to Lilienthal the head of Tennessee Valley Authority who was instrumental in reviving the economy of Tennessee and bordering states, Ebtehaj would fulfill his duties with missionary zeal (Entrepreneurs of Iran by the author). Instead of using such a huge asset to stabilize the economy and prevent waste, Ebtehaj was for many years in and out of jail by Shah’s order because of a statement that he may have made regarding the Iranian economy. One wonders why? Was fear as felt by Hormozd or intrigues that may have been emanated by courtiers whose interest may have been threatened by integrity of people like Ebtehaj? In 1956 when the British and French attacked Suez Canal and failed, British announced that they would withdraw for Eastern Mediterranean where they had provided security. Shah announced that such security would be provide by the Iranian armed forces. Ebtehja had mentioned (in a conference in the United States) that the cost of the security arrangement should be paid by the United States, whose interest is being protected, not Iran. Shah’s immediate reaction was jail. It seems to me that Shah had been so much used to “Yes Your Majesty” comments by sycophants that simple logic irritated him, and jail was the answer.
2. Dr. Manouchehr Eqbal
Dr. Eqbal served Shah in various position. He was most prominent as Chancellor of Tehran University, Prime Minister and Chairman of the National Iranian Oil Corporation. In each position he maintained the integrity for which he was well-known. When he approached the Shah and advised him about the atrocities that were committed against some people revolting about some issues, he was summarily dismissed from his high position. Seeing the drastic actions taking shape against Shah’s regime and the fact that there was nothing he could do to stabilize, the situation, he had a massive heart attack and died. Thousands of people took part in his funeral, which was a universal testimony to his outstanding services to Iran.
3. Gholam Hossein Sadighi
Gholam Hossein Sadighi, a Professor of Sociology at Tehran University, and Minister of Interior and Deputy Prime Minister to the most famous man in modern Iranian nation, Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh, was another man who could have stabilized the turmoil facing the Shah.
Dr. Sadighi like other distinguished men before him was endowed with a charisma that would have led people to believe him and prevent the untimely collapse of Shah’s regime. But he had been in and out of jail by his majesty’s order and when he was invited to form a government to deal with the national crisis, he asked for time to do the right job. Instead of listening to him Shah was influenced by chief of security who had no clues about the depth of social problems to which Shah was facing. He was pushing to elevate Shapour Bakhtyar, to Prime Minister. Bakhtyar had neither charisma nor a political base which was evident soon after his appointment. All members of the National Front dismissed him and a few days after he left Iran surreptitiously.
4. Abdollah Entezam
Entezam was the Chairman of National Iranian Oil Company. He was most respected by rank and file in the industry that was crucial to the country in terms of revenue and fuel. He was dismissed from his job simply because he had mentioned that credible people should be brought in to handle such complex issues that may lead up to upheaval and damage the society causing irreparable damage. Entezam had a frugal lifestyle, not interested by material luxuries that Shah’s circle was used to.
Shah had assumed that in crisis time, the clergy, the Ayatollas, that he was in touch with would help. That was even a more significant problem. Of the two Ayatollahs mentioned, Mr. Behbahani was a major element during the Coup d Eat of 1953. He would distribute the dollars that were given to him by agent of CIA. Everybody knew the background which means he had no credibility. The other Ayatollah was quite all the time during the most critical part of the social turmoil. He was after his own interest which did not include Shah’s defense.
The author of this paper knew the Dean of School of Theology at Tehran University. During the years before the Fall of Shah, someone who introduced himself as an emissary from Pope met the Dean of the School and asked him, bluntly, if Soviet Union invaded Iran, what would be the reaction of the clergy to such an invasion? The Dean told him bluntly that clergy always looks after his own interest. Shah was naively believing that some Ayatollahs would support him if there were social turmoil. This proved the opposite.
5: Late Professor F. Reza
In the middle of 1960s. the government of Iran invited the above first-rate scholar to Iran to revive a newly high-tech university. The professor told me that he accepted the invitation with great enthusiasm and left for Iran. He first tackled the newly established University of Technology faculty. Soon after he was appointed Chancellor of Tehran University, the well-established one but with highly calcified faculty in some areas and outdated programs and delivery of the same. He retired about 100 calcified faculty and employed newly arrived Ph.Ds. in several fields.
His first act at Tehran University and the community was an earthquake. The impact was noticeable and required substantial support by the regime. Many of the faculty that were retired had other jobs in the government and had deep political influence. Intrigues and bad mouthing mounted and required political support. The government of late Hoveida was not strong enough to withstand these pressures. Hoveida himself was reluctant to express his support. The consequence of massive reactions, unjustified as they were, bore heavily of the Premier. The result was that the work that Professor Reza had begun remained unfinished. The author of this paper witnessed the low quality of some programs and fully justified the necessary change. Here was a man, comparable only to Omar Khayam, in having a command of Persian literature and modern science and technology, a rare combination indeed, was left alone to fend off his action necessary as they were. In the absence of stable political institution to analyze the merit of such major changes and a public that would trust the institution, one becomes a target of bad faith. The tragedy of this episode was that a top-rate Iranian scholar had to leave the job that he was made for and wanted to spend rest of his life improving it totally heart broken. The system took many years to accept and implement some of the reforms.
The queen who had helped initiate the move was nowhere to be seen. She like others seemed to be satisfied with the status quo.
However, the innovator left his cherished responsibility depressed because the regime did not allow him to fructify the objectives that he had set out.
A modus operandi was left to flourish, and old cliques enjoy the aura of work environment at the higher level remained a distant objective if ever to be achieved. There is plenty of evidence about his frustration in his writings of several books about his experience dealing with Iranian government.
The Last Economic Plan
In early 1970s The Plan and Budget Organization, the most important economic planning unit in the country, submitted a masterpiece: An elaborate and comprehensively plan for the economic performance of the country for next five years. The Plan was drawn over months by some very top Iranian economist where they had deeply analyzed the available and future resources and implementation in sectors of the economy that would enhance productivity with an eye on inflation. The Plan provided a Blueprint that would lay the foundation of an economy free of inflationary pressures. They took the Plan to Takhte Jamsheed and presented to Shah. They knew well that without his approval all that precious time utilized in a meticulously drawn up Plan will go nowhere.
What happened next shock the top planners. Shah had expressed dissatisfaction with the restrictions that the plan would impose on the level and extent of investment. This short description does not do a fair job, but it describes the Shah’s mental framework of Knowing Everything. Only one member of the economic team, Mr. Majlumian, dared to say that without approval and implementation of the Plan as presented there is good chance that inflationary pressure may disrupt the social framework. The Plan was not taken seriously, and the outcome did exactly appear as had been predicted.
Late Premier, instead of appealing to Shah to allow the Plan to work, changed the leader of the Plan Organization K. Farmanfarmaian a competent practicing economist, and a former Governor the Central Bank. Soon after the undisciplined expenditure unleashed on the country providing a fertile ground for unprecedented inflation providing the best conditions for the Islamic Revolution.
Conclusion
Moral of the story is that leaders who surround themselves with people suspicious quality may let their people ultimately pay a heavy price. This has proven and the examples, one some centuries ago and one as old as 50 years. When Shah puts most credible civil servant like Ebtehaj in jail and listens to morally corrupt people like Alam turmoil is provided precious nutrients that can do most damage. If you like to find someone who is totally corrupt, ethically, commercially, sexually and monetarily, Alam would be that individuals. His memoirs (6 volumes) attest to all such thing. And he had had Shah’s ear all these critical years. when Shah announced Glasnost and Perestroika it was too little too late.
The similarities between the two regimes abound. The top commanders Hormozd had dismissed had deep respect among millions of Iranian and armed forces. Their dismissal was a major blow to the stability and structure of the Sassanian empire.
By the same token, the summary dismissal of jailing of most competent men, like Ebtehaj, or others like Entezam, among oil industry workers, Saddiqi among National Front members, Dr. Eqbal. Among thousands who attended his funeral in addition to dismissing the most compressive economic plan drawn at the that time, had devastating effect on many well-educated people and intellectuals who were disenchanted and left the country.
So, when the turmoil started millions of potential supports stayed home disillusioned by Shah’s unthoughtful acts or had already left the country. Just like Frankenstein, Shah’s circle of sycophants, Alam being the cheer leader, brought him ruin and disaster. History just repeated itself 1500 years later.