Kaveh Farrokh (Ph.D.) —
The first definitive appearance of an independent Afghan political body (specifically with the name of Afghanistan) occurred as late as 1747, with the actual term “Abgan” first appearing in the third century CE with the derivative term “Afghan” (Afḡān) having most likely been used in reference to the East-Iranian speaking Pashtun (Paṧtūn) tribes of modern-day Afghanistan since antiquity. In practice Afghanistan has witnessed a complex political and cultural history and multifacted ethnogenesis since very ancient times and has played a critical role in world civilization. The antiquity of ancient Afghanistan can be tracked as far back as pre-historic times. Evidence of human habitation in Afghanistan has been traced to the upper paleolithic era, as far back approximately as 50,000 years ago, with human activity to the west in modern-day Iran traced further back at approximately 63,000 years ago as evidenced in Luristan province’s Kaldar Cave which featured finds of both Homo Sapiens and Neanderthal hominids. There are several pre-historic archaeological sites in Afghanistan such as Deh Murasi Ghundai, Mundigak, Aq Kupruk, Darra Dadil, Darra Chakmakh, Kara Kamar, Hazar Sum, Darra-e Kur, Hezar Gusfand, and closer to modern-day Iran, Nad-e Ali as well as areas in Afghanistan’s sections of Seistan (which otherwise are located mostly in southeast Iran’s Seistan and Baluchistan province). Domestication of animals and even agricultural activity in pre-historic Afghanistan can be traced as far back as 11,000 years ago when humans engaged in tending herds and raising crops, having abandoned hunting and gathering.
Urban centers in Afghanistan have been traced to 6000 years ago (notably ancient Lot city in modern-day province of Herat) with metallurgy appearing in Afghanistan by 3000 BCE. It is also notable that the Indus valley civilization (3300-1300 BCE) also reached into modern-day northeast and north Afghanistan. Afghanistan was then to be dominated by the arrival (from Central Asia) of proto-Iranian peoples on horseback by c. 1100s CE who also entered onto the Iranian plateau (the most famous of whom were to become the Medes and Persians of ancient times). The Iranian peoples arriving in ancient Afghanistan and the Near/Middle East were part of the larger and evolving Iranian-speaking peoples that were to encompass a wide territorial zone ranging from Eastern European/Ukraine regions all the way to Northwest China. It is also notable that Iranian peoples arriving in the ancient Near East were to arrive from what is now northeast Iran and western Afghanistan regions. Much of the regions of ancient Afghanistan and its adjacent territories in Central Asia were to be settled by Iranian peoples such as the Soghdians, Bactrians, Massagetae, Sakas, Dahae, etc.
The first Iranian empire of the Medes was to dominate Afghanistan in the time span of approximately 700-550 BCE. One region that appears to have fallen outside Mede control was the Gandhara kingdom, founded sometime in 1500 BCE, some four centuries prior to the Iranian arrivals. The Gandhara kingdom was centered in eastern Afghanistan in a region encompassing Kabul, the Swat River gorge and basin of Peshawar, in close proximity to modern-day northeast Pakistan and northwest India. Another kingdom of note in Afghanistan most likely outside of Median authority was the later iron Age Indian kingdom of the Kamboja (most likely established sometime in 700 BCE). This was located in India’s northwestern frontier which at its height may have encompassed modern-day Kabul in eastern Afghanistan as well as parts of southeast Iran and even parts of Tajikestan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia.
The succeeding (Medo-Persian) Achaemenid empire was to not only annex the former Mede Empire’s Afghanistan territories but was to also absorb Gandhara and Kamboja. Gandhara appears to have submitted to Achaemenid rule by sometime in 535 BCE, although some outlying regions of the Kamboja appear to have retained some type of autonomy, possibly in regions outside of Achaemenid control, with the kingdom lasting until sometime in 300 BCE following the Alexandrian conquests. It was Achaemenid king Darius I the Great (r. 522-486 CE) who completed the conquest of Afghanistan. This appears to have been one of the derivatives of Darius’ campaign to conquer the Saka Tigrakhauda of Central Asia whom Cyrus the Great (r. 559-530 BCE) founder of the Achaemenid Empire, had lost his life in combat against them. By c.500 BCE, the major Iranian satrapies in modern-day Afghanistan under Achaemenid rule were Aria, Bactria and Arachosia. The modern-day city of Herat situated to the west of Afghanistan near Iran’s modern-day Khorasan province, is traceable to very ancient times, however it is not possible to determine its exact chronological origins. The adjoining regions of Herat are identified in the ancient Zoroastrian Avestan texts as Harōiva and then Haraiva in the Old Persian language of the Achaemenids. An etymological explanation for the origins of the name “Herat” is that the name of the district of Haraiva and its primary city originated from the Hari-Rud River (located approximately 5 kilometers south of the modern city of Herat), with the name of this river derived from Old Iranian Harayu (lit. bearing speed). The importance of the Herat region to the Achaemenid Empire is signified for example by the early 19th century discovery of an ancient Achaemenid cuneiform cylinder in the city’s environs.
The Haraiva region was identified as “Aria” by the Achaemenids (Bisotun inscriptions at time of Darius I) and the Classical sources. To the west of Aria was the satrapy of Parthava (Parthia) and to the northeast was Bāxtriš (Bactria) with its capital city in northeast Afghanistan known as Bāxtra (Bactra; also known at the time as Zariaspa [Iranian: golden horse]; to be known as Balkh later in history). To the south of ancient Afghanistan was Dranka (or Zranka) in modern day Seistan in southeast Iran. Across the Oxus River (to the north of Bāxtriš) in Central Asia was the Achaemenid satrapy of Suguda (Soghdiana or Soghdia) in the vicinity of contemporary Samarkand and Bukhara in modern-day Uzbekistan. As per Herodotus, the Achaemenids included Aria in the same taxation category system as Parthia (Parthava), Soghdia (Suguda) and Chorasmia (Uvārazmiya) which was bordered to its north by the Aral Sea in Central Asia. Another key Achaemenid satrapy to the east of Aria was Harauvatiš (Arachosia) situated in the region of modern-day south Afghanistan’s Arghandab River. It is possible that the territorial administration of Harauvatiš may have reached as far as the Indus River further to the east in ancient India. The capital of Harauvatiš was located in what became known as the city of Kandahar in modern-day Afghanistan. The earliest known settlement at ancient Kandahar is dated to approximately 700 BCE, with the ancient citadel identified as having been built by the Achaemenids sometime in the 6th century BCE. While the actual name of Kandahar in Achaemenid times cannot be fully ascertained with absolute certainty, it is possible that the city was known as Kapišakaniš (as possibly suggested in Darius’ Bisotun inscriptions). What can be verified is that Old Kandahar (or Kapišakaniš) served as a vital military center for the Achaemenids.
The Achaemenid depictions of the Eastern Iranians at Parsa (the Persepolis royal city palace) as well as Nagshe Rustam (the royal Achaemenid tombs) show them attired in traditional Iranian dress suitable for horseback riding (trousers, tunic, tall boots and headcloth). In practice this was the dress of the wider range of Iranian peoples such as the Saka Paradraya (lit. Saka beyond the Sea; Scythians) in Eastern Europe (modern Ukraine, south Russia regions), the Saka Tigrakhauda (pointed cap Saka) and Saka Haoma-varga (Haoma-bearing Saka) of Central Asia and the Iranians of West Asia (Medes, Persians, Saggarthians, Hycanians, etc.) as well as the Armenians, Albanians and Iberians of the Caucasus. Herodotus affirms the Scythian type attire of the Arians by noting how these were similar to that of the Bactrians (Bāxtriš). The ceremonial Kandys cloak with empty sleeves (possibly originating amongst the Iranian peoples of Central Asia), is depicted amongst the Mede-Persian nobility at the Apadana stairway at Persepolis. The same Kandys type cloak is also seen for example with the Darius statue of Susa (to the left of the king) in which the delegate from Aria is seen wearing the same outfit. The Kandys signified the high rank of the wearer amongst the Achaemenids, indicative that the Arians were one of the esteemed Iranian peoples of the empire. The religion of Zoroastrianism was also widespread in Aria and much of Central Asia. The Zoroastrian faith is known to have spread as far as northwest China which had been settled by Iranian peoples and the Tocharians (a closely related Indo-European people).
It is notable that Greek colonists had been present in Bactria which (as noted previously) was contiguous to Aria during the Achaemenid era. These were the result of deportations of Greeks into the region by the Achaemenids, with the first of these most likely having been Ionians. Darius I for example deported the Greeks of Barca, Cyrenaica to Bactria followed by his son and successor Xerxes I (r. 486-465 BCE) who settled Greek priests from near Didyma into the Central Asian region. Herodotus reports of the Arians as having been among those contingents of Xerxes’ army that invaded Greece in 480 BCE. The satrapy of Aria had attained an important status by late Achaemenid times. By the time of Alexander the Great’s (356-323 BCE) Greco-Macedonian invasion of the Achaemenid Empire, the eastern regions of Arachosia, Bactria and Aria were being administered by three key Iranian satraps respectively: Barsaentes (also: Barzaentes), Bessus (Old Persian: Bayaçā) and Satibarzanes (Old Persian: Šyātibr̥zaⁿs). Herat, clearly a key and strategic center for the Achaemenids by this time, may well have been the capital of Satibarzanes. The other two major (and strategic) urban centers in the eastern marches of the empire by late Achaemenid times were Old Kandahar (or Kapišakaniš) and Bactra. It is notable that Satibarzanes had fought on the left wing of the armies of Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela against the invasion forces of Alexander (October 1, 331 BCE). Bessus, who had also fought at the left Achaemenid flank at Gaugamela, was himself a blood relative of Darius III.
Following Alexander’s victories over the Achaemenids at the Battles of the Granicus River (334 BCE), Issus (333 BCE) and Gaugamela (331 BCE) king Darius III (r.336-331 BCE) retreated with what remained of his battered army to the Mede capital city of Ecbatan (or Ecbatana; modern-day city of Hamedan). Alexander swung southwards to occupy the Mesopotamian heartlands, notably Babylon. From there he thrust into southwest Iran capturing Susa, advancing through the Persian gates to then capture Persepolis which was subsequently set ablaze by the Greco-Macedonians. Having spent the winter in Persepolis, Darius III deployed northwards in order to force Darius III into a concluding battle. Darius III himself had been retreating with the remnants of his forces towards the eastern marches of his empire (notably Bactria) in order to regroup and rebuild his forces. As the Achaemenid army continued its retreat, dissatisfaction with Darius III’s leadership led to Bessus, Barsaentes and Nabarzanes (a chiliarch) to engage in a coup against the king and imprisoned him. As per Arrian, when elements of Alexander’s pursuing forces had reached the Achaemenid columns, Nabarzanes and Barsaentes assassinated Darius, denying Alexander the chance to seize Darius III himself while he was still alive. Satibarzanes and Barsaentes duly returned to their satrapies, Aria and Arachosia respectively, with Bessus now in effect king of the Achaemenid realms in the eastern marches. In the meantime, Alexander who had been marching in pursuit of Darius III through Hyrcania in northern Iran (which he occupied) soon entered Aria as he was deploying to attack the satrapy of Parthia and from there further north into Bactria in Central Asia.
Satibarzanes is then narrated to have visited Alexander at Tus (ancient Susia; near modern day Mashad, capital of Iran’s Khorasan province) to offer his submission. In return for this, Alexander allowed Satibarzanes to retain his satrapy of Aria and also provided him with a small force of forty javelin-cavalry led by Anaxippus (one of Alexander’s Companions). Satibarzanes however soon rebelled, killing Anaxippus and his Greek horsemen to then encourage the Arians to also rebel against Alexander. He then prepared with his forces for the arrival of Alexander at the city of Artacoana, which was the capital of Aria; Artacoana was most likely the same as the city of Herat of today, however this cannot be determined with absolute certainty. Alexander soon arrived at Artacoana and captured the city, however Satibarzanes (along with a few of his Arian cavalry) had fled to (re)join Bessus of Bactria. Satibarzanes then returned to Aria with 2000 cavalry supplied to him by Bessus to do battle against the Greco-Macedonian invaders. Alexander was now forced to expend significant military force to battle against Satibarzanes in Aria. The battle was hard fought until Satibarzanes was killed in a man-to-man duel with Erigyius, one of the Greco-Macedonian commanders. Alexander then appointed a Persian named Arsaces (Iranian: Ashk/Ashkan), but he too was to be replaced by a Macedonian by the name of Stasanor. Despite these successes, a serious military revolt had broken out against Alexander in Soghdia and Bactria, forcing him to continue fighting in order to force the final submission of the remainder of the Achaemenid empire’s eastern realms. It was during these battles when the Greco-Macedonian forces suffered their first military defeat at the hands of Iranian horse archers acting in concert with armored lancers. This occurred when an Iranian commander named Spitames besieged Maracanda (modern Samarkand) with its Alexandrian garrison in 329 BCE. To confront Spitames’ threat in Central Asia, Alexander dispatched Pharnuces to lead a portion of his contingents into Central Asia. Pharnuces soon met Spitames in battle in the Battle of the Zarafshan River (or Polytimetos River in Classical sources). The most mobile element in Spitames’ forces had been the horsemen of the Dahae confederation, the same confederacy that was to give rise to the later warrior ruling caste of the Parthian dynasty. The Dahae succeeded in effectively surrounding the Macedonian invasion force. Their horse archers unleashed heavy barrages of arrows upon the Greco-Macedonian contingents most likely supported by armored lancers inflicting heavy casualties upon the Greco-Macedonian forces (it is estimated that out of Alexander’s original relief forces, only 40 cavalry and 500 infantry survived to escape from Spitames’ forces). While Alexander was to finally prevail in Central Asia and Afghanistan, the Battle of the Zarafshan River was a portend for the rise of the later Iranian Parthian dynasty who spelled the final defeat of the post-Alexandrian Greek presence in Iran and were to militarily halt the expansion of the Roman Empire into Iran and further to the east towards Afghanistan, India and Central Asia.
Following his capture of Artacoanta (capital of Aria), Alexander rebuilt the city which subsequently became a part of the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander’s successor empires formed following his death in 323 BCE and the ensuing wars of the Diadochi (successor generals of Alexander).